Specificity of training is the basis on which strength coaches select exercises that will directly transfer to that sport for increased performance. The principle of specificity is an integral area of neuromuscular fitness and is summarized by the SAID principle (specific adaptations to imposed demands). The idea of the SAID principle is that the body’s neuromuscular system will adapt to the demands placed on it. This means that training movement should be highly specific to the type of tension (concentric, eccentric, isometric, stretch-shortening cycle, isokinetic), position in the range of motion or angle specificity, speed of movement, and body position seen in a particular sport (Stone et al., 2007).
The term “specificity” includes both the bioenergetics aspects and mechanics of training. “Transfer of training effect” can be used to describe the degree of performance adaptation that can result from a training program, and it is strongly related to specificity (Stone et al., 2007). In order to manifest transfer of training, the strength and conditioning coach should perform an initial “needs analysis” of the sport and the athlete (Baechle & Earle. 2008). The coach should evaluate the kinetic and kinematic movements of a sport to look for certain movement characteristics such as: movement patterns (complexity of movement, body position factors, range of movement and force production, type of muscle contraction), force magnitude, rate of force development, acceleration and velocity parameters, and ballistic vs. non-ballistic movements (Stone et al., 2007). The coach should also look at several other aspects of muscular involvement such as: strength, power, hypertrophy, and muscular endurance priorities (physiological analysis). Lastly, to complete the analysis, the coach should identify common sites for joint and muscle injury and causative factors (injury analysis). In addition to analyzing a sport, the athlete should also be assessed to determine baseline results and goals of training (Baechle & Earle. 2008). Once the coach completes the Needs Analysis, a training program can be designed to enhance and mimic aspects of that sport.
Since movement is one of the first things that coaches look at to determine exercises that will be necessary during resistance training, I characterize movements in bouldering as being closely related to movements found in gymnastics. Moves are relatively dynamic, but with a considerable amount of control and precision. Moves require a lot of upper body strength from the hands and shoulders, which are also complemented with core strength and posterior chain strength. Moves can either be “static” or “dynamic”, with a climbing route having a combination of both. Climbing, however, is not just a sport of brute strength; it requires a lot of balance and movement of the body so that the center of gravity is in the right position to allow the next phase of movement. In order to have the center of gravity in the right position, proper footwork has to occur. Some examples of foot placement that allow movements to occur are the Drop Knee, Heel Hook, Bicycle, Toe Hook, Back Step, High Step, Toe-in, Smear, and Flag. Upper body movements include rotation of the trunk for a rose move or twist lock, intense shoulder movements, such as the Gaston, Lock-off, Compression, Fall-in, and Mantles (used to top out the boulder). There are also more dynamic components of climbing such as the Dyno (comparable to a vertical jump), Inertia Kick, Dead Point, and Campusing.
Body composition and anthropometry is the second aspect that I relate to gymnastics because it is a “strength to weight” sport. To achieve optimal performance in gymnastics, it is necessary to have as much strength and power output per amount of body weight. A strong lean climber will more likely have success with completing a climb than someone who has more body mass with the same strength capabilities (Giles et al., 2006; O’Shea & O’Shea, 1985).
The muscular involvement of climbing is mostly muscular strength, power, and endurance. The initial position of the body is created by intermittent isometric contractions. These occur in order to hold body tension before the next movement. Often, the next move incorporates a quick precise movement, which involves muscular power. Because bouldering problems often have an average of 10 moves and can last up to 20 seconds, the muscular involvement can be characterized as power endurance, and uses the anaerobic energy system to fuel the muscles. This system is more evident as the climbs become more difficult. As the difficulty of the climb increases, so does VO2, energy expenditure, heart rate, and blood lactate (Giles et al., 2006). Gymnastics is also seen as a power endurance sport, however, just as in climbing, strength plays a key role in developing power endurance. The success of gymnastics relies on the ability to generate max strength at high limb velocity over the span of an event. This concept can also be applied to bouldering (O’Shea & O’Shea,1985).
To treat climbing as a power endurance sport, three phases of strength and conditioning need to be applied in order to achieve peak performance. These phases are strength-endurance, strength-speed/power endurance, and peak power. For each phase, training exercises are similar, but volume and intensity is what often changes. Each phase builds on itself, with the last phase building up to competition or the outdoor climbing season. There are a group of core exercises used in each phase that are good for building general strength and coordination, which are used for climbers in my facility. These include the Hang Clean, Dumbbell Squat to Push Press (front squat to push press), Olympic Deadlift, and Incline Dumbbell Press. These exercises work on overall body strength and conditioning, with the hang clean and the squat to press, which involves more power to maximize torso kinetic energy through a full range of joint movement. These exercises also work on the larger muscles groups of the body and gross motor patterns (O’Shea & O’Shea, 1985).
Shoulder strength, as well as hand and forearm strength, is one of the main determinants of success in climbing, coupled with lower body mass. Because the shoulders help propel the body through the bouldering route, more emphasis on its strength and power endurance is essential (Giles et al., 2006). In gymnastics, coaches explain that having a heavy set of shoulders can elevate the center of gravity, which may be more beneficial for balance and movement during gymnastic events (O’Shea & O’Shea.,1985). Heavy, strong shoulders with a smaller waist are also seen in both male and female climbers. Strong shoulders can be developed, but with exercises that place the right type of demand on them. A good exercise for shoulder strength, as well as power endurance, is the Muscle-up with an Iron-cross in the rings seen in male gymnastics. These two moves are extremely difficult; that is why we use an assisted harness device to help the climber get used to the movement. This device takes off about 50% of body weight. The muscle up is a combination of a pull-push maneuver which is essential to both pulling up into a hand hold and pushing down on the rock at the top of the boulder (called “top out”). The Iron-cross is done as the downward phase after a muscle up is completed. This works the shoulder muscles in an eccentric fashion, increasing static strength as well as dynamic strength (McClellan, 1991).
Another exercise on the rings that specifically works on power endurance is the Ice-cream Maker. This is where the climber has their elbows flexed at 90 degrees and their legs are swinging forward into a front lever and then back down continuously. This movement can be done quickly or slowly depending on the phase of training. Other shoulder-focused exercises that we use are variations of the handstand and my favorite, the Turkish get-up. These are exercises that are meant for shoulder stability and strength endurance.
For overhanging movements (which are unique to climbing), the climber needs to create a lot of tension to keep the body close to the rock as the arm is moving to grab the next hold. The core (anterior hips, abdominals) and posterior chain muscles (gastrocnemius, hamstrings, the glutes, erector spinae, latissimus dorsi, trapezius, and rhomboids) create this tension. To train for this type of movement, the Front Elbow Plank and its variations (wide hands, on finger tips, body close to the ground as possible) mimic this tension that is created in the anterior muscles. Another core exercise that I use that has shown to recruit more muscles of the core than others (such as crunches and supine leg-thrusts) is the Ab-slide exercise (Youdas et al., 2008). Exercises that create tension in the posterior chain are the Supine Hip Bridge with one leg extended, supine bridge with shoulders and neck on the ball with weight on the hips, and Inverted One Arm Pull up with feet on box. The exercises are meant to develop tension in the core as well as learning to drive the hips up towards the rock. Intense lower extremity movements such as the high step and toe hook use the core in a dynamic way rather than static. To develop dynamic core strength, we use a range of floor exercises as well as arm hanging exercises such as the L-Sit, Hanging Straight Leg Raise, Figure Eight Lock Off (this is done on the rings, one leg is lifted up and around to sit in the elbow joint. That arm releases the ring while the other arm is “locking off”. The un-weighted arm reaches again for the ring and movement is repeated on the other side. This is done continuously), Windshield Wipers on the rings, Bicycle Crunches, and the Jackknife Sit-up.
The legs are usually one of the less developed areas of a climber’s body, but this does not mean that it should go untrained. A climber cannot complete a climb without proper footwork, pull-in, and press out of the legs. The hamstrings are one of the more important leg muscles because they are responsible for keeping the climber close to the rock as well as driving the hips up or keeping them stable during a heel hook, toe-in, and drop knee. Quadriceps development is key for pressing out from a high step, back step and open step. Training exercises selected for these are the Hamstring Curl on the ball, the Stiff-leg Deadlift, Single-leg Squat, Single-leg RDL, and Lunges. As well as keeping the body up on the rock, the legs have to withstand the impact of falling from a route. Usually the fall can range from 2-20 feet. Solid landing stance, in addition to strong ankles, must be developed to keep from getting injured from a fall. High box jumps, drop jumps, and single leg hops are done for this reason during training.
General and specific strength and conditioning are trained through circuit interval system, where we also add some treadmill sprinting. As Stone et al. (2007) have indicated, “Interval training is the basis for weight training and typically forms the foundation for the training programs of most anaerobic sports”. This phrase is the basis and philosophy of training our climbers. We blend the general core exercises, shoulder exercises, abdominal exercises, and leg exercises into a circuit training style system to develop the best strength and power endurance for our climbers. Each session usually last up to 40 minutes with 20 minutes of stretching. Climbing-specific flexibility is definitely a determinant of climbing success if it is needed to complete the route (Giles et al., 2006). We emphasize PNF stretching for the hamstrings, quadriceps, and shoulders. We also add the foam roller to our stretches to allow for perceived relaxation. Both PNF and static stretches have helped in increasing climber’s flexibility, however, it is still uncertain of whether this actually increases performance during climbing (Fasen et al., 2009).
In conclusion, as a strength coach, I try to incorporate the best transfer of training techniques available for climbing. The phases of training are very important as we want our climbers to be in peak shape for their outdoor season and competition. Some phases are more intense than other and may incorporate more eccentric exercises and power movements, depending on the timing of the phase. Keeping up to date with scientific studies in the literature helps us to round out our training programs, as well as creating climbing-specific exercises that may not be studied in the literature but, through trial and error, that have been shown to improve climbing performance.
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